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to be three or four primary attachment styles, sis, object relations theory, a child learns about
though there is debate on how to best measure him or herself in the context of multiple inter-
attachment (Bartholowmew & Horowitz, 1991; personal interactions. “The child experiences
Fraley, 2011; Ravitz, et al., 2010; Sharfe, 2016; him or herself as lovable, funny, ugly, or stupid
Wei, et al., 2007). in the way that important caretaking objects
None-the-less, trust in an attachment figure al- have reflected their judgment of the child as
lows the person, child, or adult to move toward being that way” (Siegel, 1992, p. 10). In this way,
the attachment figure for comfort, security, or the child has developed a neural pathway – a
other needs. Bowlby (1973) identified two in- way of perceiving him or herself and others that
dependent variables that are at work in the at- may lead to closer and more trusting relation-
tachment relationship. One variable has to do ships, or distancing from others to avoid pain
with whether the attachment figure is deemed and hurt. This idea coincides with attachment
to be responsive and can provide the support theory and with a modern understanding of the
that is necessary. The second variable pertains brain’s development. “Attentive mothers build
to the belief about the self, essentially if the self their children’s brains in ways that support
is perceived as being worth responding to by learning, physical well-being, and the ability
the attachment figure. The experiences of trust to form relationships with others” (Cozolino,
and predictability of having needs met through 2014). Furthermore, objects relations theory
the childhood years, or the lack of, impacts the pertains to religion. Kirkpatrick (2005) sum-
neural wiring of the brain and consequently, the marized previous work to make the point that
brain is wired for various degrees of trust. Es- religion, specifically religion with a personal
sentially, this is the working model that Bowl- deity, is fundamentally a relationship based on
by discussed. Attachment is concerned with attachment processes that are founded on real
whether a person can count on another person neural circuitry. Variations of the psychoanaly-
being available in a time of need. As Kirkpatrick tic perspective, especially object relations theo-
(2005) has summarized, “the three possible ans- ry and modern ideas of neuroplasticity coincide
wers are yes (secure), no (avoidant), and maybe to help modern thinkers better understand the
(anxious)” (p.38). complexities that lead to individual differences
The convergence of ideas from attachment in how all relationships, including relationships
theory and some aspects of analytic theory pro- with a deity, are lived and experienced.
vide a common foundation for understanding
the importance of trust as an important con- Attachment and Religious Experience
struct in psychological functioning. Erikson’s This brief introduction to attachment theory
psychosocial theory (1963) suggested that trust provides a starting point from which to consi-
is the foundation to basic human functioning. der attachment as a psychological construct for
Erikson stated that trust allows the child to understanding religious experience. The field of
“rely on the sameness and continuity of the ou- psychology has had mixed perspectives on re-
ter provider” (p.248). Furthermore, Erikson’s ligion, but eventually an official chapter of the
insight led him to believe that “trust born of American Psychological Association would de-
care is, in fact, the touchstone of the actuality of velop. Division 36, The Society for the Psycho-
religion” (p. 250). This early understanding of logy of Religion and Spirituality began in 1946
trust as foundational for religion predated the (Reuder, 1999). This is mentioned because the
developments that now are incorporated into field of psychology eventually dealt with and
our understanding of attachment as a construct accepted that religious experience was wor-
for study within the psychology of religion. By thy of scientific investigation. Furthermore, as
implication, when trust is not achieved because pointed out by Kirkpatrick (2005), attachment
of interruptions or inconsistencies of care, the- theory provides a convincing basis from which
re is less trust, in others, institutions, and even a psychology of religion can be developed and
deities. investigated. Attachment theory can thus serve
From another perspective within psychoanaly- as a foundational theory from which to explore

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