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equivalent. The former yields a psychology that evidence, but interprets evidence within a bibli-
is a holistic expression of one’s Christianity—it cal worldview. This has even wider implications
has the “feel” (i.e., intertextual cues) of Christia- than might be supposed, for interpretation has
nity (e.g., it is ordered by an understanding of as much to do with a right attitude as it does
the triune God, a biblical anthropology, or the with a right understanding.
redemptive work of Christ) yet is meaningfully Second, rumors are stories that when unpacked
conversant with modern research (e.g., (Knabb, turn out to draw their meaning from within
Johnson, Bates, & Sisemore, 2019). The latter larger social identity (Maines, 1999), cultural
yields an integrated or Christianized version of (Bernardi, Cheong, Lundry, & Ruston, 2012),
a modern psychology—it has the “feel” of mo- and theological narratives. Theological narrati-
dernity (e.g., a Christianized psychodynamic ves, or stories about God and his relationship
therapy retains the foundational aim of client with humanity, are replete in every book of the
self-awareness of influential unconscious pro- Bible. Indeed, the grand metanarrative of Scrip-
cesses), even when critiqued and reformed by ture (Creation, Fall, Redemption, and Restora-
a Christian anthropology. New wine cannot be tion; see Gould, 2007) may be viewed as a battle
poured into old wineskins. for hearts and minds fought using two con-
flicting narratives: “God is good” (e.g., loving,
Interpreted Embraced Theological Narratives near, generous, freeing) vs. “God is bad” (e.g.,
in Wartime tyrannical, spiteful, distant, condemning). The
Rumor, a venerable topic in modern social psy- meanings of all stories are ultimately connec-
chology, was recently reconceived using the ted to one or the other understanding of God.
worldview elements of Christian psychology This is the “No Neutrality Principle,” the idea
(DiFonzo, 2019). Rumors are “shared informa- that because all things relate to God “no one can
tion and stories that are: 1) seen as unsubstan- approach any intellectual endeavor from a po-
tiated, 2) embedded within theological narrati- sition of strict religious neutrality” (Anderson,
ves, 3) spiritually-dimensioned, and 4) embra- 2009, p. 447).
ced or rejected.” (p. 3). This approach attended Third, rumors exist in a context of spiritu-
explicitly to Christian epistemological, theolo- al realms in conflict. The Bible amply testifies
gical, meta-physical, and human volitional as- about the instrumental use of rumor by the
sumptions at variance with implicit worldview enemies of God. Indeed, God accomplishes
elements in modern theories. The following his will by faith (Heb. 11), Satan by rumors. By
summarizes this reconceptualization of rumor rumors, Satan tempted Eve: “Do I understand
(see DiFonzo, 2019, for fuller treatment). that God told you not to eat from any tree in the
First, rumor is information that is perceived by garden?” (Gen. 3:1, The Message). By rumors,
some individuals or groups as unsubstantiated. the Canaanite reconnaissance majority fomen-
This element of the definition highlights the ted fear: “And they spread among the Israelites
pivotal (and often political) role of hermeneu- a bad report about the land they had explored.”
tics and authority inherent in the designation (Num. 13:32) . By rumors, rabble-rousers pro-
of what is considered rumor and what is consi- voked grumbling: “…the Israelites started wai-
dered fact (Fine & DiFonzo, 2011). In general, ling and said, ‘If only we had meat to eat! We
psychology has paid little attention to world- remember the fish we ate in Egypt at no cost—
view influence on hermeneutics. Nevertheless, also the cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions and
evidence does not speak for itself and there are garlic.’” (Num. 11:4-5). By rumors, the Sanhe-
no immaculate perceptions (Slife & Williams, drin crucified Jesus: “This fellow said, ‘I am able
1995). Evidence is always interpreted in the con- to destroy the temple of God and rebuild it in
text of a worldview, surround, or narrative, and three days.’” (Matt. 26:59-60). By rumors, the
the “facts” are “theory laden” (dependent upon Jewish leaders persecuted Paul: “We have found
prior knowledge; Hanson, 1958). This is not a this man to be a troublemaker, stirring up riots
post-modern abdication of realism. Rather, a among the Jews all over the world.” (Acts 24:5).
Christian epistemology holds a high view of One aspect of rumor then is its propagandistic

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