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behavior—there appears to be a lack of neural to children (Termini & Golden, 2007). Sadly, in
integration between the prefrontal cortex and children with emotional and behavioral pro-
the emotion-related brain regions (Cima, Ton- blems, morals and a conscience can appear to
naer, & Houser, 2010; Glenn, Rain, & Schug, be missing (Termini & Golden, 2007).
2009).
Lawrence Kohlberg was the leading force for
Until recent advances in neuroscience, modern understanding moral development (Lapsley &
psychology has often been accused of awkward- Carlo, 2014), with his proposed levels of moral
ly divorcing itself from morality as the discipli- development as pre-conventional, conventio-
ne aligned its identity with the scientific medi- nal, and post-conventional (Villegas de Posada
cal model (Goodman & Marcelli, 2010). The as- & Vargas Trujillo, 2015). Interestingly, despite
sumption that clients and therapist alike could the research that is available, there is minimal
enter into a value-free and morally neutral concrete knowledge surrounding the develop-
relationship has been challenged by many (i.e. ment of one’s moral identity early in life, and the
Gantt, & Yanchar, 2007; Dueck & Reimer, 2003) effects on functioning later in life (Kochanska et
and Burns, Goodman, and Orman (2013) argue al, 2010), as well as the development of cons-
that psychotherapy is indeed “a moral encoun- cience after adolescence and into adulthood
ter and has the potential to assist in elevating (Krettenauer, Murua, & Jia, 2016).
and dignifying the client” (p. 2).
Morality (and how conscience informs one’s
Embedded within a Christian worldview is the morality) influences three different areas of
belief that humanity was created in the image psychological functioning: behavioral, cogni-
of God, whose triune nature speaks to pro- tive, and affective (Termini et al., 2009). Moral
found relationality. God has set the template for values can differ depending on the individual
healthy human functioning that involves moral and could include justice, honesty, compassion,
living informed by love for God and one’s fellow generosity, or even being social and lively (Kret-
human being. The development and nurture of tenauer et al., 2016). “Moral identity” is also a
a healthy conscience is critical to our healthy common term that is a critical component of an
functioning in community and our shared so- individual’s “moral personality;” however, mo-
cial co-existence. It behooves us, then, as clini- ral identity is more than the specific aspects of
cians to understand how a healthy conscience an individual’s personality (Krettenauer et al.,
is developed, and how it can be nurtured in the 2016, p. 973). Researchers have described mo-
therapeutic context. This article will briefly re- ral identity as its own construct that develops as
view the literature on moral development of the the individual integrates his or her own moral
conscience within the relational context of at- values into their sense of self (Krettenauer et al.,
tachment theory and then discuss the clinical 2016). Similarly, moral sensitivity denotes one’s
implications of nurturing a healthy conscience capability and outlook concerning morals and
in the therapeutic context. is a representation of the self (Sherbolm, 2012).
Kohlberg defined “moral reasoning’s” as “mo-
Moral Development ral justifications” (Villegas de Posada & Vargas
In order for society to function properly, and Trujillo, 2015, p. 409). Also, researchers use
for individuals to maintain appropriate beha- moral reasoning and moral judgment inter-
vior that is acceptable to society, morality is changeably, signifying one’s ability to evaluate
required (Termini, Golden, Lyndon, & Sheaf- situations involving morals and take a course of
fer, 2009; Villegas de Posada & Vargas-Trujillo, action with justification for the choice (Villegas
2015). Morality is necessary for an individual’s de Posada & Vargas Trujillo, 2015). In addition,
social functioning, as it deciphers right from moral emotions are thought to be the emotions
wrong (Termini et al., 2009). Morally correct of empathy and guilt, but not be confused with
behavior is particularly important to parents, the behaviors that are a result of these emoti-
educators, and individuals that provide services ons (Sherbolm, 2012; Termini & Golden, 2007).

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