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insecure attachment styles (Schore & Schore, of stressful life events on distress. An anxious
2008; Sroufe & Siegel, 2011). In other words, attachment to God exacerbates the harmful ef-
early childhood trauma often predisposes a fects of stress and was a more robust predictor
person to future psychological distress (Cozo- of changes in distress than race, gender, SES,
lino, 2010; LeDoux, 2002; Schore, 2000; Siegel, and church attendance (Ellison et al., 2012).
1999). Many of these unresolved issues can lay Furthermore, key findings reported by Brads-
dormant only to be activated under the stress of haw, Ellison, and Marcum (2010) indicate that
cross-cultural work. secure attachment to God is inversely associated
In addition to relationship issues, attachment with distress, whereas both anxious attachment
style influences numerous other areas pertinent to God and stressful life events are positively re-
to missionary life. For example, attachment sty- lated to distress. The God attachment style also
les affect overall general coping patterns (Mi- may factor into how stress is perceived. For ex-
kulincer & Florian, 1995, 1998; Ognibene & ample, Reiner, Anderson, Hall, and Hall (2010)
Collins, 1998; Sroufe, 2005), including religious report that adult and God attachment anxiety,
coping (Granqvist, 2005; Keister, 2010; Schot- as well as adult attachment avoidance, signi-
tenbauer et al., 2006). Moreover, attachment ficantly predicted perceived stress. Furthermo-
style influences the relationship with God. Nu- re, the God attachment anxiety had incremen-
merous studies suggest that God serves as an tal validity over adult attachment. How much
attachment figure (Cooper, Bruce, Harman, & the God attachment contributes to outcomes is
Boccaccini, 2009; Granqvist, 2005; Granqvist, an ongoing area of research. For example, the
Mikulincir, & Shaver, 2010; Kirkpatrick, 1997, outcomes of a study by Foulkes-Bert, Volk, Gar-
1998; Kirkpatrick & Shaver, 1990). zon, and Pride (2019) suggests that God attach-
God Attachment ment anxiety and God attachment avoidance
Space limitations prevent a thorough review of have a stronger relationship with transforma-
the God attachment construct and its implica- tional leadership than adult attachment anxie-
tion for missionary acculturation and adjust- ty and adult attachment avoidance. The outco-
ment. However, coping mechanisms, including me of the study also suggests that not only is
views of God, the God attachment paradigm, there a moderating relationship between adult
and spiritual coping are also keys to cross-cul- attachment and God attachment on transfor-
tural service from the initial acculturation peri- mational leadership behavior in religious lea-
od through to effective and sustained service. In ders, but also that God attachment contributes
studies of adult attachment and religion, Kirk- a unique variance above adult attachment on
patrick and Shaver (1992) found that perceived transformational leadership behavior (Foulkes
secure attachment to God was positively related -Bert et al., 2019). Therefore, there may be some
to life satisfaction and negatively related to an- underlying support from the literature that the
xiety, depression, and physical illness. Belavich God attachment may have incremental validity
and Pargament (2002) postulated that attach- above the adult attachment. However, discus-
ment to God provides a useful framework for sion is ongoing surrounding the continuities
understanding why individuals choose particu- and discontinuities of adult attachment and
lar coping strategies. This was addressed by Hall God attachment with competing theories and
(2007a) who reported that anxiously attached often-conflicting results (Hall, Fuijikawa, Hal-
individuals rely more on God and the religious crow, Hill, & Delaney, 2009). Therefore, con-
community while those classified as avoidantly tinued research in the area of attachment may
attached utilize more self-reliant and/or nega- help clarify the role of God attachment in these
tive coping strategies. A longitudinal study by populations.
Ellison, Bradshaw, Kuyel and Marcum (2012) Attachment Style and Attrition
showed that a secure attachment to God at ba- Theoretically speaking, attachment style may
seline is associated with a decrease in distress also be a factor in the overall retention of glo-
over time. Furthermore, a secure attachment bal-workers. Specifically, attrition and espe-
to God buffers against the deleterious effects cially early departure from the field are major

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