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tic than their compatriots (Bagley, 2003; Carr, sak, & Popper, 2007). Popper and Amit (2009)
1994, 1997; Carr & Schaefer, 2010; Goode, 1995; found that that secure attachment style formed
Grant, 1995; Irvine, Armentrout, & Miner, in early childhood influences the potential to
2006; Jensma, 1999; Lindquist, 1982; Miersma, lead and that this capacity is essential for lea-
1993; Schaefer et al., 2007). How missionaries dership.
perceive the stress and choose to manage even Physical and psychological stressors.
traumatic stress may be a function of their at- Physical health is frequently cited as a source of
tachment style. stress for missionary workers due to language
barriers, inadequate or unfamiliar health care
Human/interpersonal stress. systems, disease outbreaks, and the cumulative
Missionaries are surrounded by a web of relati- effect of the ministry workload (Eenigenburg
onships (Ritchey & Rosik, 1993). These relati- & Bliss, 2010; Foyle, 2001). Physical health is
onships hold the power to promote health and paramount to successful missionary service
wellness or sickness and stress for the missiona- (Foyle, 2001; Lindquist, 1997). In addition, it is
ry. For example, if the relationships are positi- intricately related to attachment style (Maun-
ve in nature, then they provide a major source der & Hunter, 2008; Taylor, Mann, White, &
of support and care that sustains missionaries Goldberg, 2000). Physical health is related to
throughout their careers. However, if these re- psychological health (Koenig, 2009) and there
lationships are conflict-ridden and draining, is a direct connection between attachment style
then their impact contributes to the stress ex- and psychological functioning (Cozolino, 2010;
perienced by missionaries (Ritchey & Rosik, Jones, 1996; Sroufe, 2005; Sroufe & Siegel, 2011;
1993). As stated previously, interpersonal rela- Wei et al., 2005).
tionships form the core of our understanding of The psychological health of missionaries is of
attachment styles (Bartholomew & Horowitz, the highest priority to member care personnel
1991) as well as missionary service (Hiebert, who provide a myriad of targeted services across
1992). Those with secure attachments report the lifespan of ministry (Hall & Schram, 1999;
better quality of relationships than non-secure Johnson, 2002; Johnson & Penner, 1988; Lind-
types (Collins & Read, 1990; Simon & Baxter, quist, 1996, 1997, 2002; O’Donnell, 1992, 1997,
1993). Moreover, those with secure attachments 1998, 1999; O’Donnell & Lewis O’Donnell,
have more confidence and skill in building and 1988; 1992, 1998, 2002; Pollock, 2002; Schu-
maintaining relationships (Kim, 2012), have bert, 1999; Schwandt & Moriarty, 2008). On
longer-term relationships (Feeney & Noller, that note, member care workers are reporting
1991; Hazan & Shaver, 1987), and enjoy greater that the newer generation of missionary candi-
intimacy (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991), as dates (Donovan & Myors, 1997) are coming to
well as report more positive perceptions of part- the field more “bruised” with unresolved fami-
ners (Young & Acitelli, 1998). ly of origin or childhood issues (Dipple, 1997;
That being said, missionaries often cite inter- Lindquist, 1997; Richardson, 1992; Schubert,
personal relationships as one of the larger stres- 1992). In cross-cultural contexts, these emotio-
sors of their lifestyles (Bosch, 2014; Carr, 1994; nal issues invariably become amplified (Gray-
Dipple, 1997; Dodds & Dodds, 1997; Eeigen- bill, 2001; Lindquist, 1997). Moreover, they
burg & Bliss, 2010; Foyle, 2001; Gish, 1983). have the potential to cause a negative ripple
Such stressors may contribute to early depar- effect throughout the mission community and
ture from the mission field (Allen, 1986; Tay- beyond. Understanding how early unresolved
lor, 1997; Trimble, 2006). Generally speaking, emotional experiences affect psychological
attachment style may predict how individuals functioning is important as there is overwhel-
perceive and address interpersonal conflict ming support for the association of psychiatric
(Bowlby, 1969, 1973; O’Connell-Corcoran & disorders with unresolved and difficult early re-
Mallinckrodt, 2000; Pistole & Arricale, 2003), lationships (Fonagy et al., 1996).
as well as attitudes toward authority and leader- Moreover, attachment theorists have linked
ship styles (Davidovitz, Mikulincer, Shaver, Iz- early childhood trauma to the development of

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