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management; Physical, the overall health and missionary may be considered a challenge to
factors that affect it ; Psychological, the overall another, which largely depends on the percepti-
emotional stability and self-esteem; Support, on (Gish, 1983; Huff, 2001). Gish (1983) points
the resources to sustain one’s work and Spiritual out that stress depends in part on whether or
relationship with the Lord. The research litera- not the missionary appraises a given situation
ture well-supports each of these areas as critical as benign, neutral, or stressful and adds that
missionary stressor domains; Cultural (Foyle, even if the situation is appraised as stressful, it
2001); Crises (Bagley, 2003; Human (Ritchey & may not result in distress, as some may view it
Rosik, 1993); Historical (Schubert, 1992); Oc- as a challenge. Gish (1983) notes that if a person
cupational (Vander Pol, 1994); Organizational does see harm, loss, or threat in the stress, the
(Carter, 1999); Physical (Lindquist, 1997); Psy- result may be different.
chological (Barnett, Duvall, Edwards, & Lewis
Hall, 2005); Support (Taylor & Maloney,1983); Perception of Stress
and Spiritual (Parshall, 1987). Generally speaking, the perception of stress,
The CHOPS Stress Inventory helps missionaries as a construct, is found within the framework
and humanitarian -aid workers assess themsel- of the appraisal and coping literature. Lazarus
ves across the 10 areas of stress. The inventory and Folkman (1984) described stress as a par-
also provides a reflective section where workers ticular relationship between the person and the
can identify struggles, successes and strategies environment that is appraised by the person as
(O’Donnell & Lewis -O’Donnell, 2009). The taxing or exceeding his or her resources and en-
2009 version of CHOPS assessment was up- dangering his or her well-being. The cognitive
dated in 2012 to include areas of stress identi- appraisal process includes a primary appraisal
fied in the A4 regions: America-Latina, Arabic- in which the person evaluates potential harm
Turkic, Africa, and Asia (O’Donnell & Lewis or benefit to self or loved ones, goals, values,
O’Donnell, 2012).A quantitative version of the or commitments. In a secondary appraisal, the
2012 CHOPS Stress Inventory (Tone, 2015) was person evaluates what can be done to prevent
developed for the present study and is descri- harm or improve benefits, and what coping op-
bed in the Methods section. tions are available (Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-
Schetter, DeLongis, & Gruen, 1986). How well
Stress and Coping a person copes with stress depends on a variety
There are several theories identifying the stress of factors such as the internal resources of ma-
response in humans, including the models first stery, self-esteem, and external resources such
proposed by Cannon (1914) and the Selye’s as social support (Bovier, Chamot, & Perneger,
(1956) General Adaptation Syndrome. Both of 2004). Notwithstanding, any one of these inter-
these theories involve the physiological stress nal and external support networks may be dis-
responses of the nervous and endocrine sy- rupted in a cross-cultural experience (Dodds &
stems. For the purposes of this study, we will Dodds, 2003; Sweatman, 1999), leaving the mis-
consider the psychological model proposed by sionary vulnerable to ineffective or maladaptive
Lazarus (1966) involving the cognitive apprai- coping mechanisms and negative sequelae.
sal systems. Lazarus saw stress as the imbalance Perception of stress, however, is not a monoli-
between the demands placed on the individual thic construct. Multiple confluent factors can
and their resources to cope. The experience of influence how stress is both perceived and how
stress differs significantly depending on how the one chooses to cope. This delicate balance can
stress is interpreted (Gurung, 2014). In other make the difference between a positive and
words, it is rarely the stressor itself but rather negative sojourn for the missionary worker.
the perception of stress that can lead to negative Identifying and understanding the amount of
results (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983; and types of stress can be the first step in stress
Cohen & Williamson, 1988). management and coping initiatives. This study
A review of the literature on missionary popula- aimed to evaluate the perception of stress in a
tions reveals that what may be stressful for one population known to experience a high degree

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