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(1983) suggests they are under no more stress or factors contributing to attrition. Dodds and
than others in the helping professions but may Dodds (1993; 1997) implemented a modified
be unaware or unwilling to report the level of version of the Holmes-Rahe Social Readju-
stress and may under report it (Carter, 1999). stment Rating Scale (Holmes & Rahe, 1967)
Consistent with studies on stress-related grow- called a ‘stress-event scale’ to accommodate for
th (Joseph & Linley, 2005; Tedeschi & Calhoun, cross-cultural realities. Studies have also inclu-
2004), missionaries may report positive chan- ded other stress-related tools that directly or in-
ges as a result of the stress even when the stress directly measure stress, components of stress or
is trauma-related (Irvine et al., 2006). In fact, related factors such as burnout (Chester, 1983),
missionaries appear to have a high degree of re- trauma or posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
silience and may expect stress as part of their (Bagley, 2003; Schaefer et al., 2007); hassles (Na-
calling (Bagley, 2003, Schaefer et al., 2007). varra & James, 2002); hostility (Taylor & Ma-
This resilience may in turn buffer the amount loney, 1983); or well-being (Keckler, Moriarty
of perceived stress (Alim, Feder, Graves, Wang, & Blagen, 2008). Many studies focus on cross-
Weaver, Westphal, & Charney, 2008), allowing cultural adjustment stressors (Cerny Smith As-
missionaries to continue being effective in their sessment, 2018) while others address depressi-
ministries despite the difficulties. Resiliency on, anxiety or other psychological components
factors may also be implicated in the underre- (Pinkston, Chen & Richardson, 2015; Strand et
porting of stress in this population. Notwith- al., 2015). Many of these studies used multiple
standing, all of these factors must be taken into assessment tools concurrently. In addition to
consideration in evaluating and interpreting these stress measures, several researchers have
stress in missionary populations. used case studies (Gardner, 1987) self-reports
In response to the high degree of stressors re- and mixed methods (Bikos, et al., 2009) that
ported, mission agencies have made a concer- yield rich data from which to examine the types
ted effort to both assess the stress and provide and severity of reported stressors.
targeted interventions across the life span of Despite the number of stress measures and stu-
the missionary. This care referred to as member dies evaluating missionary stress to date no re-
care, which is now a global effort, is described search could be located where a measurement
by O’Donnell and Lewis -O’Donnell (2016) as tool specific for missionary stressors had been
an interdisciplinary, international, and multi- tested and statistically compared to existing
sectoral field that focuses on supporting the measures. One purpose of the present study
diversity of mission/aid personnel and sending was to test a newly designed quantitative in-
groups. This care involves the provision and strument, the CHOPS Stress Inventory, develo-
development of quality resources to promote ped to assess missionary stress and compare it
wellbeing, resiliency, and effectiveness. It in- to the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale (PSS, Co-
cludes pre-field training, field coaching, per- hen, Karmarck, & Mermelstein, 1983), that has
sonnel departments, pastoral counselors, crisis established psychometric qualities.
support, and reentry preparation (O’Donnell &
Lewis-O’Donnell, 2016). CHOPS Stress Inventory
O’Donnell and Lewis O’Donnell (2009, 2012)
Stress Measurement Tools for Missionary Po- have identified 10 common areas of stress cross-
pulations cultural workers encounter. These 10 over-
Numerous studies have been conducted to lapping areas, that bear research support are
measure the types of stressors missionaries en- represented by the acronym CHOPS, include
counter with a variety of different measures. Cultural, described as getting one’s needs met in
Gish (1983) developed a 65-item scale, which unfamiliar ways; Crises, potentially traumatic
was replicated in Carter’s study (1999). Bosch events; Human, relationships; Historical, unre-
(2014) created a comprehensive survey tool solved past areas of personal or social struggles;
with over one hundred multiple categories of Occupational, related to job specific challenges
stress, areas of need, member care concerns and stressors; Organizational, governance and

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