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Foundational Discussions in Christian Psychology

infers both the universal applicability of these imagination, feelings and the senses to provoke
interventions and attributes positive outcomes spiritual awareness (McLeod, 1986). This form
to the act of meditation itself (cf. Dixit, 2008; of Christian spirituality concerns itself with fa-
Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Markway, 2014). In this way cilitating a person’s sense of connection with
mindfulness practice is at times portrayed with God through meditating on what is known
the characteristics of a secular sacrament that about themselves and God, e.g., the spiritual
brings wholeness to its practitioners and which exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola (St. Ignatius,
is effective either ex opere operato (i.e., the be- 1964). Practices that support kataphatic spiri-
nefit is derived on the basis of the action itself) tuality include contemplative prayer, meditating
or ex opere operantis (i.e. the benefit is derived on sacred texts, visualization, as well as medita-
as a result of the work of the doer). With this in ting on one’s sins, the passion of Christ or the
mind it is worth noting that the common fac- attributes of God (Bidwell, 2004, 76-78, Blan-
tors literature makes the case that therapeutic ton, 2002; Finley, 2004; Knabb, 2012; Nolasco,
change is multifactorial and that clinical inter- 2011; St. Ignatius, 1964). In contrast, apopha-
ventions play a minor role in the process of the- tic spirituality is concerned with mystery, i.e.,
rapeutic change (Ahn & Wampold, 2001; Beut- the unknowability of God, and focuses on the
ler, Forrester, Gallagher-Thompson, Thompson person’s experience of divine reality apart from
& Tomlins, 2012). When this observation is ap- what is perceived through the five senses or
plied to mindfulness practice we are faced with theological understanding. Practices associated
the distinct possibility that any perceived bene- with apophatic spirituality include solitude,
fit of mindfulness-based interventions is more breathing exercises, the practice of hesychasm
likely to result from the mediating effects of cli- in the Orthodox tradition, and ‘prayers’ which
ent factors and/or the therapeutic relationship are the unspoken and unformed groanings of
than the technique itself. the soul (The Cloud of Unknowing, 1985; Fin-
ley, 2004; Vlachos, 1994). Viewed as a whole it
Tradition becomes evident that Kabatt-Zinn’s assumption
Wesley valued the historical heritage of Christi- of a universal socio-religious fit between MBSR
an theological interpretation and would refer to and diverse religious traditions fails to appre-
the writings of the Fathers of the Eastern Or- ciate the fact that Christian spirituality is not
thodox and Catholic traditions as well as more merely concerned with the practitioner’s exi-
recent authors as a means of supporting his in- stential experiences of awareness, attunement
terpretation of scripture (Outler, 1964; Thorsen, or acceptance but rather is focused on facilita-
1990). As a tool for analysis the Christian tradi- ting the person’s awareness of themselves in re-
tion supports two avenues for reflection on key lationship to God.
assumptions, explicit and implicit, that inform Secondly, there are those who acknowledge that
the practice of MBSR. where differences in belief exist that these may
First, Kabat-Zinn (1990, 2001) claims that be incorporated into mindfulness practice, thus
mindfulness-based practice does not conflict suggesting that MBSR may be a suitable host for
with religious beliefs. This claim invites follo- the client’s religious beliefs (Cole at al., 2012;
wers of Christ to first assess whether the goals of Hathaway & Tan, 2009; Meléndez et al, 2012;
mindfulness practice, i.e., a sense of awareness, Symington & Symington, 2012; Tan, 2011). Alt-
attunement or acceptance, are in keeping with hough correlational approaches to theological
the aims of Christian spirituality. With this in reflection are common within the fields of Pa-
mind, it is important to consider the nature of storal and Christian Counselling the applicati-
Christian spiritual practices. Within Christiani- on of this methodology to the use of spiritual
ty spiritual practices may be divided into two practices drawn from non-Christian traditions,
streams, apophatic spirituality and kataphatic and particularly the Eastern religions, has long
spirituality (McLeod, 1986; Stewart, 2001). Ka- been recognized as problematic (Chesterton,
taphatic spirituality employs thoughts or ima- 1908; Gnoli, 1953). For example, Chesterton
ges with the intent of engaging reason, the will, (1908) observed that two or more systems of

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