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moral awareness in light of personal guilt. In ven to the people of Israel),” nonetheless, “by
Psalm 32, the Psalmist describes the state of his nature (physis) do what the law requires they
soul before he confessed his sin: “my bones wa- are a law to themselves, even though they do
sted away” (v. 3); and “my strength was dried up not have the law. They show that the work of
as by the heat of summer” (v. 4). In Psalm 51, the law is written on their hearts (kardiais),
the Psalmist acknowledges that his transgressi- while their conscience (suneidēseōs) also bears
ons and sin are “ever before me” (v. 3), and that witness, and their conflicting thoughts accuse
he needs to be washed and cleansed from his or even excuse them on that day when, accor-
sin in order to hear joy and gladness, so that ding to my gospel, God judges the secrets of
“the bones that you have broken” can “rejoice” men by Christ Jesus” (Ro 2:14-16; ESV). Paul
(2, 7-8; ESV). Such descriptions would seem teaches here that mature human beings in every
indicate the presence and activity of a consci- culture possess some knowledge of God’s ethi-
ence—and the decidedly embodied nature of its cospiritual design plan or guidelines for human
experience—even if the word is not yet availab- life—we might say, written by the hand of God
le to label it, signified by physical and emotional just as surely as God had written the 10 com-
distress in response to guilt and physical and mandments on tablets of stone. This is eviden-
emotional wellbeing when one is cleansed and ced (sūmmarturousēs; Gk., “to bear witness”) by
washed from that guilt. the inner ethical conflict all humans experience
One of the clearest OT allusion made to the periodically, manifested in self-recrimination
conscience is found in 1 Samuel, when Abigail or a defensive excuse-making, that will come to
is asking David to accept her gifts of food in an light in the final judgment. Such teaching has
attempt to appease David’s anger after her hus- led Christian thinkers to posit the existence of a
band had rejected David’s plea for food for his “natural law,” impressed deeply into and acces-
men. Abigail suggests that because of David’s sible to all humans independently of God’s spe-
righteous cause, he should have no cause of cial revelation to human beings given through
grief or a troubled heart (lēb, Heb.) about doing theophany (e.g., his judgment upon the Israe-
wrong, for example, “having shed blood wit- lites on account of the golden calf; Ex 32:35),
hout cause and my lord having avenged him- prophetic utterance, or Scripture.
self” (1Sa 25:31; New American Standard), sin- We should also note that on a couple of occa-
ce he has done nothing wrong. sions the Apostle Paul referred to his readers’
By the time the NT was written, however, the consciences that formed positive moral judg-
Greek word syneidēsis had become available, ments about Paul’s integrity (2Co 4:2; 5:11).
and so some of the NT authors made reference This suggests that the conscience is not just a
to the conscience. Perhaps the most common perceptual module of moral self-evaluation, but
use was to refer to it when it was functioning as also has a social dimension.
a mark of wellbeing, calling it “good (Acts 23:1; To summarize and develop the foregoing, the
1Ti 1:5; 1:19; 1Pt 3:16, 21), “clear” (Acts 24:16; term “conscience” is a label that refers to a fa-
1Ti 3:9; 2Ti 1:3; Heb 13:18), or “clean” (Heb culty or module, distinct to humans, dedicated
10:22). In such a state, the conscience positive- to the perception of moral reality, that includes
ly validates one’s moral integrity before God, cognitive, affective, volitional, and relational
cognitively and affectively (more on this in the components; and it appears to have a positive
new covenant, below). Put negatively, the cons- and a negative aspect. Assuming the proper
cience in such a state does not bear witness of function of the conscience, the positive activity
one’s guilt, either because one has not recently of the conscience is demonstrated in the pos-
done anything blameworthy or because it has session of a valid perception of one’s goodness,
been cleansed by God’s forgiveness in Christ cleanness, integrity, and authenticity, valid in
(Heb 10:22; 1Jn 1:9). that it corresponds to God’s evaluation of one’s
The Apostle Paul gave us the fullest description action and being, and this perceptual ability
of the conscience in the Bible. “When Gentiles, can be directed towards others. The.negative
who do not have the (Mosaic) law (that was gi- activity of the conscience is evidenced in the

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